Module 6: Personality
Module 6, Personality
Part 1, Understanding Personality
Personality is a complex and fascinating area of psychology. It refers to the patterns of thoughts, emotions and behaviours that make each person unique. Although our personalities can develop and change throughout life, many of our core characteristics remain relatively stable.
Psychologists have spent many years trying to understand why people think and behave differently. Over time, several theories have been developed to explain personality, each offering a slightly different perspective.
What is Personality?
Personality is the combination of our thoughts, feelings and behaviours that make us who we are. It influences how we interact with others, respond to situations and make decisions.
Examples of personality traits include:
- Introverted or extroverted
- Optimistic or pessimistic
- Calm or anxious
- Friendly or reserved
Traits are generally considered to be consistent patterns that remain fairly stable over time.
Personality Traits
One of the earliest attempts to measure personality scientifically came from Raymond Cattell.
Using a statistical method called factor analysis, Cattell identified 16 personality factors, believing these could explain much of human personality.
Some of these factors include:
- Warmth
- Reasoning
- Emotional stability
- Dominance
- Liveliness
- Rule consciousness
- Social boldness
- Sensitivity
- Vigilance
- Abstractedness
- Privateness
- Apprehension
- Openness to change
- Self reliance
- Perfectionism
- Tension
Each trait exists on a continuum rather than being all or nothing. For example, someone may be very warm, fairly reserved, or somewhere in between.
The Five Factor Model (Big Five)
Later research simplified personality into five broad traits.
Developed by Robert McCrae and Paul Costa (1987), the Five Factor Model, often called the Big Five, remains one of the most widely accepted models of personality today.
The five personality traits are:
Extraversion
People high in extraversion are:
- Outgoing
- Sociable
- Talkative
- Energetic
- Enjoy being around others
Neuroticism
People high in neuroticism are more likely to experience:
- Anxiety
- Mood swings
- Irritability
- Emotional instability
Openness to Experience
People high in openness tend to be:
- Curious
- Creative
- Imaginative
- Open to new ideas
- Interested in learning
Agreeableness
People high in agreeableness are often:
- Kind
- Trusting
- Compassionate
- Cooperative
- Warm towards others
Conscientiousness
People high in conscientiousness are generally:
- Organised
- Reliable
- Responsible
- Goal orientated
- Dependable
Part 2, Personality Theories
Psychologists have developed several theories to explain where personality comes from.
The four main perspectives covered in this module are:
- Psychodynamic
- Behavioural
- Humanistic
- Biological
Each focuses on different influences that shape who we become.
Psychodynamic Theory (Sigmund Freud)
Sigmund Freud believed much of our behaviour is driven by the unconscious mind.
According to Freud, many of our thoughts, emotions and behaviours are influenced by experiences we are not consciously aware of, particularly those from early childhood.
Freud developed psychoanalysis, a form of therapy designed to uncover unconscious conflicts.
Freud's Three Parts of Personality
The Id
The Id is present from birth.
It:
- Operates on the pleasure principle
- Wants immediate gratification
- Contains basic instincts such as hunger, sleep and sexual urges
The Ego
The Ego develops to deal with reality.
It:
- Operates on the reality principle
- Makes rational decisions
- Tries to balance the demands of the Id and the Superego
The Superego
The Superego represents:
- Morality
- Conscience
- Personal values
- Social rules
It encourages us to behave in socially acceptable and ethical ways.
Defence Mechanisms
Freud believed that when conflict exists between the Id, Ego and Superego, the mind uses defence mechanisms to reduce anxiety.
Examples include:
- Denial
- Repression
- Projection
- Regression
- Rationalisation
- Displacement
These operate largely outside of conscious awareness.
Summary of Freud's Theory
Key ideas include:
- Behaviour is strongly influenced by the unconscious mind.
- Childhood experiences shape adult personality.
- Internal conflict exists between the Id, Ego and Superego.
- Defence mechanisms help reduce psychological anxiety.
Behavioural Perspective
Behaviourists believe personality develops through learning rather than unconscious processes.
B.F. Skinner
Skinner believed behaviour is shaped through reinforcement.
Behaviours followed by rewards become more likely to occur again.
Albert Bandura
Bandura expanded behaviourism through Social Learning Theory.
He believed people learn by:
- Observing others
- Copying role models
- Seeing the consequences of other people's behaviour
Bandura also introduced reciprocal determinism, where:
- Behaviour influences the environment.
- The environment influences behaviour.
- Cognitive processes influence both.
These three factors constantly interact.
Summary of Behavioural Theory
Behavioural theories suggest:
- Personality develops through learning.
- Observation plays an important role.
- Reinforcement strengthens behaviour.
- Behaviour, thoughts and environment influence one another.
Humanistic Perspective
Humanistic psychologists focused on people's strengths and potential rather than illness.
The two major contributors were:
- Carl Rogers
- Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers
Rogers believed personality centres around our self concept, which is how we see ourselves.
Problems arise when there is incongruence, meaning our self concept does not match reality.
Rogers believed people naturally strive towards growth and that unconditional positive regard during childhood helps build a healthy self concept.
Abraham Maslow
Maslow developed the Hierarchy of Needs.
He believed humans naturally work towards self actualisation, becoming the best version of themselves.
People who achieve self actualisation often display characteristics such as:
- Self acceptance
- Realism
- Creativity
- Independence
- Problem solving
- Enjoyment of life
- Good sense of humour
- Comfort with solitude
Biological Perspective
Hans Eysenck believed personality is largely influenced by genetics.
Through factor analysis he identified two major supertraits:
- Extraversion versus Introversion
- Neuroticism
He proposed that these broad supertraits influence many smaller personality traits, which then influence our habitual behaviours.
Key Learning Points
✔ Personality refers to relatively stable patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving.
✔ Cattell identified 16 personality traits using factor analysis.
✔ McCrae and Costa simplified personality into the Big Five model.
✔ Freud believed personality is shaped by unconscious conflict between the Id, Ego and Superego.
✔ Behaviourists explain personality through learning, reinforcement and observation.
✔ Humanistic psychologists focus on personal growth and self actualisation.
✔ Rogers emphasised self concept and congruence.
✔ Maslow believed people naturally strive to fulfil their potential.
✔ Biological theories suggest genetics play an important role in personality.
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